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In whatever connection we use the word ethics, the main meaning will always be morality. For the first time this global problem arises in Greece. Socrates speaks of virtue as knowledge. He is opposed by sophists who pragmatically deny the existence of higher laws, and therefore moral imperatives. In Plato's dialogues, we see a direct opposition between morality and profit. Along with the widespread spread of Christianity in Europe, there is a kind of monopoly of the church on morality. The problem of ethical choice is simplified to the antinomy "I believe – I don't believe": faith in God automatically implies acceptance of the laws given by him, expressed in an imperative form. And so it was – until the XVI century. people lived according to the laws of morality, which was directly related to religion.
But with the advent of modern times, these restrictions have become too strict. In the teachings of Immanuel Kant, morality retains the role of a categorical imperative, but almost simultaneously (at the turn of the XVIII–XIX centuries), the direction of utilitarianism appears in philosophy, which suggests that instead of the criterion of morality, an act should be evaluated by its usefulness. Utility itself is expressed in happiness or unhappiness.
The term "cloning" describes a number of different processes, as a result of which a genetic copy of a biological organism can be created. That is, during cloning, there is no recombination of genetic material (mixing of genes); during it, populations of cells or organisms with the same set of genes (genotype) appear. The "copied" material, which has a genetic composition similar to the "original", is called a "clone".
In natural conditions, bacteria multiply by cloning (their colonies are a clone of the original cell), plants in the process of vegetative reproduction (tubers, rhizomes, bulbs, shoots, etc.). However, unlike plant cells, animal cells, differentiating in the process of ontogenesis (individual development), are deprived of the ability to form any types of cells this organism, which was for a long time the main obstacle to the cloning of adult vertebrates.
The first to prove the possibility of artificially producing twins was the German embryologist Hans Driesch. In 1891, he separated the cells of a two-celled embryo of a sea urchin. As a result of this experience, Drish received two genetically identical organisms.